http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/ Agricultural and Rural Economics en daily 1 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132361.html Introduction: Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most important crop in the world and is directly related to the nutrition of the global population. Bread wheat is considered a strategic crop worldwide due to the important role it plays in the political and economic arena of countries, especially developing countries. The economic importance of wheat, both in terms of production and nutrition, is greater than that of other agricultural products globally. Drought is one of the factors limiting growth in cereals, especially wheat. Drought stress has a significant impact on the early stages of wheat growth. Drought stress is one of the most important environmental stresses worldwide, which is the causes of reducing the production and productivity of agricultural products in arid and semi-arid regions. Based on limited water resources in the low-altitude region, optimal utilization and increased water productivity are absolutely essential for achieving the country's economic growth. Since the largest water consumption is in the agricultural sector, increasing water productivity is considered a fundamental strategy for achieving food security in the country.The most important indicator of water input consumption is the economic efficiency of water use in crops. From an economic perspective, only increasing water use efficiency is not enough, but the product produced must provide farmers with greater economic value. The aims of this research, are to examine the return of bread wheat lines and cultivars produced under normal and dry stress conditions in farmers fields located in villages in Nazarabad city of  Alborz province.Materials and Methods: In terms of methodology, this research was conducted in the form of an agricultural experiment and inferential analysis, and  for data collection, it was carried out through observation and documentation To conduct on-farm studies of new bread wheat promising lines, three lines (M-99-9, M-99-15 and MDH-99-10) were selected from ERWYT (Elite Regional Wheat Yield Trial) under normal and terminal drought conditions for temperate climates and compared to one commercial varieties of Amin (as local check).The lines were sown on 2000 m2 areas under both terminal drought and normal irrigation conditions in farmer’s fields of Kal Bahram and Mohsenabad villages in Nazarabad city of Alborz province during  2023-2024 research period. In this study, the terminal drought experiment, entailed cutting off irrigation at the booting stage, while irrigation continued in normal irrigation  treatment. Quality characteristics of the grain of bread wheat lines and the check were measured under both normal and terminal drought conditions in the target regions. For economic evaluation, this research used profitability indicators, including net income, gross margin, the safe return percentage and the accounting rate of return.Technical and economic productivity indices were used to assess the efficiency of water input consumption in crop production. The technical (or physical) productivity index is the ratio of the amount of product produced to the amount of water input consumed. The higher this index, the more efficient water consumption.Other indicators that include financial and economic aspects of productivity are the gross value of product produced per unit of water input and the net profit from product production per unit of water input.Results and Discussion: According to the grain yield evaluation results, M-99-15 wheat line, with a grain yield of 12110 kg ha-1 in normal irrigation experiment (Mohsen Abad village) and the MDH-99-10 line, with an average seed yield of 9470 kg ha-1 under drought stress conditions, increased by 29 and 18 percent, respectively, compared to the check variety. In normal conditions, based on economic indicators, the total production costs, including land rent, were calculated for M-99-9, M-99-15, MDH- 99-10 lines, and the Shahed (Amin wheat cultivar) as 1347.6, 1351.2, 1348.6 and 1344.4 million rials per hectare, respectively.The net income from the production of M-99-15 was 768 million rials per hectare, which increased by 49.3, 30.6 and 157 percent compared to M-99-9, MDH- 99-10, and the control cultivar, respectively. The accounting rate of return (return on investment) for the production of, M-99-15, was 56.8 percent, which increased by 48.7, 30.3 and 155.8 percent compared to lines M-99-9, MDH- 99-10 and the control, respectively. Net income forom the production of bread wheat line M-99-15 was more than Amin variety by 257 percent and the cost per kg of this line was 111577 rials/kg, which was 22 percent lower than check. The cost per kilogram of product in line 99-15-M was estimated at 111,577 Rials, which was 13.5, 9.2, and 28.3 percent less than lines M-99-9, MDH- 99-10 and the control cultivar, respectively. In the production of the superior line M-99-15, the physical water productivity was estimated at 2.42 kg/m3 of water, and the economic water productivity was estimated 153,600 Rials profit/m3, higher than the control cultivar. Additionally, under terminal drought conditions, in Kal Bahram village, the total production costs, were 1313.5, 1312.5, 1315.7 and 1312.1 million rials per hectare for M-99-9, M-99-15, MDH- 99-10 lines and control cultivar as, respectively. The net income from the production of MDH- 99-10 was 341.5 million rials per hectare, which increased by 76.8, 182.9, and 266.8 percent compared to M-99-9, M-99-15 and the control ], respectively. The accounting rate of return for the production of MDH- 99-10, M-99-9, M-99-15, and the control rose by 14.7, 9.2, 26, and 7.1 percent, respectively. The cost per kilogram of product was estimated at 152,555, 160,256, 138,933, and 163,400 rialt, respectively. The net income for the production of (MDH-99-10) was more than  the Amin variety by 366.8 percent and the per kg was  15 percentlower than check. In the production of the superior line MDH- 99-10, the physical water productivity was estimated at 16.3 kg/m3, and the economic water productivity was 113,833 rials profit/m3 of water, which was higher than the control cultivar. Conclusion and Suggestions: Based on agronomy and economic indicators, it is recommended to cultivate the MDH-99-10 line ujder drought stress conditions and M-99-15 under normal conditions in the targeted regions. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132411.html Introduction: Food security is a multidimensional concept and a fundamental pillar of sustainable development and societal well-being. Assessing its status across countries helps identify successful patterns, structural vulnerabilities, and long-term risks affecting national and regional food systems. Given the rapid population growth, increasing demand for food, environmental constraints, and geopolitical instabilities in Asia, evaluating food security trends has become essential for informed policymaking.Materials and Methods: This study evaluates the level of food availability and stability in Iran and 30 selected countries in Central, South, and Southwest Asia over the period 2000–2023, using data from 25 indicators developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). To integrate and compare these indicators, a simple weighted average method was employed, which aggregates the normalized decision matrix using the assigned weights for each sub-indicator. Countries with incomplete data—Bahrain, Palestine, and Bhutan—were excluded from the final comparative analysis. The regional classification allows for a structured comparison of food security performance across diverse socioeconomic contexts.Results and Discussion: The results show that, in 2023, the studied countries were classified into the standard five food security categories (80–100: very high; 60–79: high; 40–59: moderate; 20–39: low; 0–19: critical) based on established literature. For analytical clarity and to strengthen the regional interpretation, these five levels were consolidated into three broader groups: (1) countries with high and stable food security, (2) countries with moderate and partially stable conditions, and (3) countries facing low and unstable food security. Iran demonstrated a consistently upward trend in its food security index throughout the study period and ranked above the regional average in most years. The analysis further indicates that countries with larger and more stable economies generally exhibited higher resilience in food access, whereas countries affected by conflict, economic shocks, or high import dependency showed higher vulnerability. These results underscore the importance of economic capacity, infrastructure, and governance quality in shaping long-term food security outcomes.Conclusion and Suggestions: Overall, the study highlights substantial disparities in food security across Asia and emphasizes the need for coordinated national and regional actions. For Iran and similar middle-income economies, strengthening food system resilience requires strategic investment in smart storage infrastructure, digital food-tracking platforms, and enhanced domestic distribution networks. Additionally, diversifying import sources, improving early-warning systems for climatic and market risks, and expanding risk-based agricultural insurance can significantly enhance food security stability. These findings provide valuable evidence for designing integrated food policies aimed at reducing volatility, improving sustainability, and supporting long-term national and regional food security planning. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132410.html Introduction: Food security and foreign exchange earnings are affected by various factors and products. A product approach as an important and effective factor can lead to the acceleration of the realization of food security goals. Dates, as a basic, strategic and currency-generating product, have always been of interest to agricultural policymakers. This product is of particular importance due to its high nutritional value and economic aspect. The economic importance of this product as one of the non-oil export items is that, in addition to high exports and currency-generating, due to the limitation of its main production areas in the world, the possibility of other products competing with this strategic product is relatively low, and therefore a special place can be envisaged for it from an economic point of view. Accordingly, a study of economic issues and trade influencing factors of dates, especially regarding price, can be important. Accordingly, the main goal of this study is to analyze the long-run relationships among World date prices, Iran’s export prices, and domestic market prices.. Examining the price transmission mechanism between the world market, Iran’s export market, and the domestic market can thus provide clearer insights for policymaking in foreign trade and help  improve the competitiveness of Iran’s exports. Materials and Methods: In this study, annual time series data from 2003 to 2022 were used to analyze the relationship between world prices of date and Iran’s export prices, while monthly data from 2019 and 2020 were employed to examine the relationship between export prices and domestic prices. Annual data on the world export price of dates and Iran’s export prices, as well as monthly data on Iran’s export prices and domestic market prices, were processed and analyzed using the Vector Error Correction Model (VECM) in EViews software. Results and Discussion: According to the information available on the FAO website in 2021, Iran is one of the largest producers of dates in the world, ranking third in the world in terms of production. According to the information on the Trade Map website, the share of Iranian date exports in the world is 12.5 percent, and the world export rank of Iranian date products is third after Saudi Arabia and The usurping Zionist regime (Israel). It should be noted that over the past years, Iran has always ranked first to fourth in the world in terms of date exports. According to the statistics of the Customs of the Islamic Republic of Iran, in 2022, the number of countries importing dates from Iran was 81 countries, so that India, Pakistan, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, the UAE, Iraq, Uzbekistan, Russia and China are among the top ten countries importing dates from Iran. Based on available information, the trend in world prices of dates during the years 2003-2022 shows that, despite fluctuations, it has had an increasing trend, reaching from $757 per ton to $1251 per ton in 2022. Also, the trend in the export price of Iranian dates over the same period of time indicates the existence of very high fluctuations, so that initially there was an increasing trend and then since 2018 there has been a completely decreasing trend. The results indicate that there is no significant long-term relationship between the world price of dates and the Iran’s export price . The special conditions of Iran's foreign trade in recent years and international restrictions could be the reason for the difference between these results and previous research. The monthly trend of Iran’s export prices of dates during the years 2019-2020 shows that despite a downward trend in some months, it has had a stable trend throughout the period. Also, the monthly trend of the domestic price of dates during the mentioned period shows that it has fluctuated during this period, which has found an increasing trend in the final stages of the mentioned period. The findings also show that there is no long-term relationship between the export price and the domestic price of Iranian dates; meaning that price changes in the domestic market do not necessarily reflect price developments in the export market. Conclusion and Suggestions: The results indicate that there is no significant long-term relationship between the world price of dates and the Iran’s export price dates. This finding is completely different from the results obtained by Eskandarpour et al. (2014), which stated that "the Granger causality test shows that the of export prices of Iranian dates influence world prices, and not the other way around." On the other hand, the estimated results regarding the relationship between Iran’s export prices and domestic prices of dates also indicate that there is no long-term relationship between these two variables. Given that Iran has been the third largest exporter of dates in recent years, it was expected to have a relationship with world prices, but contrary to expectations, the research results do not confirm this. Based on these results, it can be concluded that Iran’s date market does not follow a typical price transmission mechanism across different market levels, highlighting the need to revise supportive and export policies. In this regard, it is emphasized that Iran's policymaking methods regarding this product should be revised in accordance with international conditions and the position of this product in the world and in the world market should be used in a more favorable manner. Therefore, to enhance Iran's position in world markets and strengthen export competitiveness, it is recommended to implement policies such as providing appropriate financial facilities to producers and exporters as an efficient export incentive, eliminating foreign exchange commitment requirements, providing air transportation (cargo) subsidies, and reducing export-related costs. Such an approach can reduce transaction costs, increase Iran's share in world trade of dates, and provide a basis for sustainable development of exports of this product. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132418.html In the present study, the effects of guaranteed price’s political tools on crop area (with an emphasis on sugar beet production), consumption of inputs and ultimately gross margin in Mahidasht plain were investigated. For this purpose, two-stage simple random sampling method was used to collect information from farmers and then the Agricultural Center and Regional Water in the town. For data analyzing and modeling, the Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) model with the cost function approach was used by GAMS software and the effects of guaranteed price’s political tools were explored under three scenarios including; price based on the exchange rate of the government currency, the integrated system of currency transactions and the continue of the policy in the current form. The results showed that only the second scenario increased the sugar beet crop area and has continued towards the sugar self-sufficiency. Under this scenario, increased use of potassium fertilizers and other poisons is not significant in compare with phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers. Therefore, in order to encourage the farmers to the sugar self-sufficiency, the government needs to refine the price policy on the basis of real prices. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132421.html Introduction: Excessive reliance on natural production resources (water and soil) in generating agricultural value added-i.e., resource-based rather than productivity-driven growth-has, over recent decades in Iran, weakened fundamental production resources, increased agriculture’s vulnerability to climatic conditions, destabilized agricultural value-added growth, and reduced the contribution of factor productivity to the sector’s economic expansion. Given the impossibility of expanding natural production resources (agricultural water and land), the necessity of preserving existing resources, the need to reduce agriculture’s sensitivity to climate variability, and the importance of enhancing factor productivity and moving toward sustainable agricultural growth, an effective and practical strategy is required. In light of these challenges and considering the documented impacts of capital on key agricultural macro-variables (Mirzaei, 2022; Khaledi, 2024; Nikandam Modabber et al., 2024; Zhoghipour & Gholizadeh, 2024; Bakari & El Weriemmi, 2022), the development of agricultural investment has increasingly been adopted as an influential policy approach worldwide. One distinguishing feature of the present study is its simultaneous examination of agricultural investment indicators across regions and countries. This approach not only provides a comparative picture of the level, growth, and share of agricultural investment at national and global scales, but also helps illustrate the implications of agricultural investment policies within Iran. Accordingly, the study aims—using the most recent international data for the period 2010–2023—to assess agricultural investment trends across world regions and selected countries, with a specific focus on Iran. Materials and Methods: This study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach with the aim of comparing the status and trends of key agricultural investment indicators-including the level and growth of agricultural investment, the share of agricultural investment in total investment and agricultural value added, and the Agricultural Investment Orientation Index (IAOI)-across five world regions and selected countries (both developing and developed). The findings are presented in two separate sections: (1) a comparison of agricultural investment indicators across global regions, and (2) a comparison of these indicators among selected developing and developed countries. The data used in this study were obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Results and Discussion: Asia, with an annual average of USD 296 billion (2015 = 100), ranked first in agricultural investment and accounted for more than half of global agricultural investment (approximately 55 percent annually). Among the selected countries, China (USD 144.5 billion), the United States (about USD 61 billion), and India (USD 55.3 billion) recorded the highest annual averages. In contrast, agricultural investment in Iran amounted to about USD 4 billion per year. The highest Agricultural Investment Share (AIS) was observed in Africa, with an annual average of 7.3 percent. As expected, -given the structural differences in total investment between developed and developing economies—the AIS tends to be higher in developing countries than in advanced economies (Pakistan: 20.5%, Afghanistan: 12.6%, United States: 1.6%, United Kingdom: 1.5%). Iran’s annual average AIS during the same period (3.8%) exceeded the global average (2.8%) as well as the averages for Asia, the Americas, Europe, and Oceania. Nevertheless, agricultural investment in Iran remains misaligned with the sector’s strategic importance in the national economy. Asia and Oceania recorded the highest and lowest annual agricultural investment growth (AIG) rates—4.5% and 2.2%, respectively—between 2010 and 2023. During the study period, the global Share of Agricultural Investment in Agricultural Value Added (SAIVA) averaged about 16 percent. While Europe, Oceania, the Americas, and the world as a whole invested roughly one-third, one-fourth, one-fifth, and one-sixth of agricultural value added back into the sector each year, this ratio in Iran was less than one-tenth. Considering Africa’s lower level of economic and agricultural development, Iran’s relatively low SAIVA indicates a significant underinvestment in agricultural value creation. As expected, the Agricultural Investment Orientation Index (IAOI) in developed regions—Europe, the Americas, and Oceania-was close to or above one. Globally, the lowest and highest IAOI values in 2023 were recorded for Angola (0.04) and Luxembourg (9.8), respectively. Among the selected countries, Iraq (0.26) and the United Kingdom (2.69) reported the lowest and highest IAOI values during the study period. Comparatively, Iran’s IAOI (0.39) fell below the global average (0.65) as well as the averages for Asia (0.42) and Africa (0.48). Conclusions: their global and regional benchmarks-alongside the relatively high capital depreciation rate in the sector, and considering the necessity of preserving agricultural production resources, mitigating the adverse effects of climate change, moving toward sustainable agricultural value-added growth, enhancing factor productivity, and shifting production processes toward more capital-intensive methods, it is essential that the government adopt a national program for strengthening agricultural investment in Iran. To this end, investment development in the agricultural sector should be prioritized by: 1)      reforming the terms of trade within the Iranian economy and restructuring the current monetary and financial system; 2)      designing and implementing a targeted agricultural investment acceleration program; 3)      utilizing modern financial instruments and mechanisms (such as crowdfunding, innovative financial tools, and Islamic finance methods); 4)      managing the supply and demand of financial resources; 5)      establishing an appropriate institutional framework within the Ministry of Agriculture Jihad (e.g., an Agricultural Investment Organization). http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132425.html Areas that have the ability to attract tourists play a fundamental role in tourism development. In other words, the basic condition for tourism development is having inherent conditions such as pristine nature and beautiful landscapes. The existence of these areas can have a tangible impact on the development of the region. Dishmuk district is a part of Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad province is one of the pristine regions of Iran. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of assessing the feasibility of tourism development in the Dishmuk region. The statistical population of the study consisted of residents of Dishmuk district, who numbered 4687 people. The sample size was estimated to be 198 people using the Cochran formula. The research tool was a researcher-made questionnaire, whose face validity was measured through a panel of rural development experts and its reliability through Cronbach's alpha coefficient (0.70-0.92). The results of the study showed that among the 6 dimensions examined for the feasibility of tourism development in the Dishmuk district, the cultural-social and economic dimensions were the most appropriate dimensions of the conceptual framework of the study, with the lowest coefficients of variation of 0.11 and 0.20, respectively. The results of the one-sample t-test also indicated that the current situation for tourism development in the study area in economic and cultural-social dimensions was above the average level (3), and therefore these dimensions had a relatively good situation in the study area, but in terms of other dimensions, namely operational, technical, scheduling, and legal, the situation was below average, below average, weak, and weak, respectively. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the operational, technical, scheduling, and legal dimensions with the efforts of the authorities and local people and by relying on positive points such as economic and cultural-social dimensions. In order to improve the conditions for rural tourism development in Dishmuk, it is suggested to create appropriate regulations to facilitate matters related to tourism development, and also to install a sign indicating the completion of projects to improve the timing variable. Also, by allocating taxes from the people of the region to the development of infrastructure related to transportation routes and the tourism industry in Dishmuk district, steps can be taken to develop tourism in Dishmuk. Finally, this research showed that Dishmuk has the capacity to develop the tourism sector. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132435.html Onion, as a staple commodity in Iranian households, has been subject to persistent market instability driven by recurrent price fluctuations. This study investigates the degree of market integration and the behavior of intermediaries in response to price shocks, employing weekly data from 2019–2023 and a nonlinear autoregressive distributed lag (NARDL) framework. The empirical results reveal that farm-gate prices exert a leading influence on price transmission, which is both asymmetric and nonlinear: upward price adjustments are transmitted more rapidly, whereas downward adjustments occur with delay and face resistance from intermediaries. Retail prices exhibit strong persistence, with approximately 21.3% of long-run disequilibrium corrected in each period, implying that market equilibrium is restored within an average of 4.5 weeks.Policy implications highlight the importance of enhancing input productivity and reducing production costs, fostering cooperatives and direct contracting with retailers, and expanding direct marketing channels. Regular dissemination of price information and consumer awareness initiatives are recommended to mitigate the adverse effects of concentrated market power. Furthermore, enforcing antitrust regulations, monitoring intermediary practices, implementing online platforms for transparent reporting of prices and trading volumes, and preventing artificial supply restrictions are proposed to reduce volatility and promote greater fairness across Iran’s onion supply chain. http://etr.agri-peri.ac.ir/article_132436.html Rural economies in Iran largely rely on low income agricultural activities that are highly vulnerable to climatic and economic shocks, intensifying poverty and livelihood instability. Livelihood diversification has been recognized as a key strategy to enhance rural resilience; however, the absence of a localized, policy oriented framework has hindered effective planning. This study aims to identify and contextualize adaptable policy pathways for rural livelihood diversification in Iran by reviewing successful domestic and international experiences. A targeted analytical review with a policy oriented approach, grounded in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), was conducted. Literature searches in Google Scholar, SID, Magiran, and international databases employed keywords such as livelihood diversification, sustainable livelihoods, rural poverty, and resilience. Source screening was based on conceptual relevance to SLF components, socio economic significance, and contextual applicability to Iran. Selected studies were analyzed thematically and comparatively, resulting in the classification of livelihood models into “improved,” “complementary or diversified,” and “alternative” categories. A “successful” model was defined as one that demonstrably increases resilience and reduces poverty. Case examples were drawn from Yemen, Nepal, India, Turkey, Madagascar, Pakistan, Iraq, Spain, and Mexico. Findings highlight the relevance of initiatives such as climate resilient agriculture, low water technologies, renewable energy adoption, and women’s microcredit groups in arid regions of Iran. Consequently, the study proposes multi level policy recommendations — at national, provincial, and local scales — to promote inclusive and sustainable rural development.